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Sources of J&K History

Sources of J&K History

Prehistory and Early Kashmir · 5 min read

History is rebuilt from sources. For J&K there are unusually good ones, and a famous one: the Rajatarangini, the first real chronicle in Sanskrit.

Archaeological sources

  • Burzahom and Gufkral for the Neolithic, Manda for the Harappan age, Harwan, Ushkur and Parihaspora for Buddhist and Karkota Kashmir.
  • Temples: Martand, Avantiswami, Pandrethan, Naranag.
  • Coins and inscriptions: Kushana, Hun, Karkota, Sultanate, Mughal, Sikh and Dogra coins.
  • Gilgit manuscripts (found 1931 near Gilgit): among the oldest surviving manuscripts in the subcontinent, mostly Buddhist texts on birch bark.

Literary sources: Sanskrit

SourceAuthorWhat it gives
Nilamata PuranaUnknown (about 6th to 8th century CE)Origin of Kashmir, rivers, festivals, rites. Kalhana used it.
RajataranginiKalhana, 1148 to 1149 CEKings of Kashmir from the legendary age to 1149 CE.
Nripavali, ParthivavaliKshemendra, HelarajaEarlier king-lists. Lost, but used by Kalhana.
VikramankadevacharitaBilhana (11th century)Life of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI. Bilhana was from Kashmir.
KathasaritsagaraSomadeva (11th century)Story collection, written for Queen Suryamati of Kashmir.

The chain of Rajataranginis

ChronicleAuthorPeriod covered
1st: RajataranginiKalhanaEarliest times to 1149 CE
2nd: Dvitiya RajataranginiJonaraja1149 to about 1459 (up to early Zain-ul-Abidin)
3rd: Jaina RajataranginiSrivara (pupil of Jonaraja)1459 to 1486
4th: RajavalipatakaPrajyabhatta and Suka1486 to 1586 (Mughal conquest)

Foreign accounts and Persian chronicles

SourceAuthorNote
Si-Yu-KiHiuen Tsang (Chinese pilgrim)Visited about 631 CE, stayed about two years, in the reign of Durlabhavardhana.
Kitab-ul-HindAl-BiruniNotes on Kashmir's learning and its closed borders (about 1030 CE).
Tarikh-i-RashidiMirza Haidar DughlatWritten 1546 to 1547. He ruled Kashmir for the Mughals (1540 to 1551).
Baharistan-i-ShahiUnknownPersian history of Kashmir (early 17th century).
Tarikh-i-KashmirHaidar Malik ChaduraWritten about 1620.
Ain-i-AkbariAbul FazlDescribes Kashmir as a Mughal province.
Travels in the Mogul EmpireFrancois BernierFrench physician who came to Kashmir with Aurangzeb in 1665.
The Valley of KashmirWalter Lawrence (1895)Detailed account of land, people and revenue.
Kalhana's Rajatarangini (translation)Sir Aurel Stein (1900)Standard English translation with notes.

Modern writing

  • Prem Nath Bazaz, The History of Struggle for Freedom in Kashmir; G.M.D. Sufi, Kashir; Mohibbul Hasan, Kashmir under the Sultans; P.N.K. Bamzai, Culture and Political History of Kashmir.
  • Sheikh Abdullah, Aatish-e-Chinar (autobiography); Karan Singh, Autobiography.

More on the Rajatarangini and the Nilamata Purana

  • Nilamata Purana is the earliest known text of Kashmir. It tells Kashmir's story before the Rajatarangini era and says the Nagas were the earliest inhabitants.
  • Kalhana (Pandit Kalhan) was the court poet of King Jayasimha of the Lohara dynasty. He wrote in Sanskrit in 1149 to 1150 CE (some books give 1148 to 1149).
  • The word Rajatarangini means "river of kings".
  • It was translated into Persian by Mulla Ahmad on the orders of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (15th century), and into English by Sir Aurel Stein (1900).
  • Under Akbar, Abul Fazl used some of its material in the Ain-i-Akbari.
  • Jonaraja carried Kalhana's work forward, his pupil Srivara followed, and then Suka, up to the time of Akbar.

Persian sources, one by one

SourceAuthorWhat it is
Tarikh-i-KashmirSayyid AliWritten in the time of Yusuf Shah Chak.
Tarikh-i-KashmirMalik Haidar (Chadura)A Kashmiri nobleman at the court of Yusuf Shah Chak. Tells the story from earliest times to about 1617 CE.
Waqiat-i-KashmirKhwaja Muhammad Azam Kaul DidamariGrowth of religious life, social trends and literature under the Mughals.
Muktasar Tarikh-i-KashmirPandit Birbal KachruA short account of Kashmir under the Mughals, Afghans and Sikhs.
Tarikh-i-RashidiMirza Haidar DughlatMongol and Kashmir history.
ZafarnamaSharaf-ud-Din YazdiA Persian biography of Timur. Shows the relation between Sultan Sikandar and Timur.
Malfuzat-i-TimuriTimur (autobiography)Timur speaks of his dealings with Sikandar of Kashmir.
AkbarnamaAbul FazlGeography, history, antiquities, administration, farming, arts, industry and economy of Kashmir under the Shah Miris and Mughals.
Tabaqat-i-AkbariNizamuddinCourt history of Akbar's reign.
Tuzuk-i-JahangiriEmperor JahangirHis memoirs, with many pages on Kashmir.
Kitab-ul-Hind (Tarikh-i-Hind)Al-Biruni (in Arabic)He came to India with Mahmud and lived here for many years.
Si-Yu-Ki (Buddhist Records of the Western World)Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang)Chinese traveller; spent two years in Kashmir.

Sources in English

BookAuthor
Travels in the Himalayan ProvincesWilliam Moorcroft
The Jammu and Kashmir TerritoriesFrederic Drew
The Valley of KashmirWalter Lawrence
The Land of the LamasWilliam Rockhill

Sources for Jammu

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Prepared for exam revision from standard sources, official publications and the Census. Figures and recent developments change, so check official sources before relying on them. Found a mistake? Tell us.